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BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the human blood groups and their antigens and antibodies?

Human blood groups are classified as A, B, AB, and O based on the presence of antigens on red blood cells and antibodies in plasma:Group A: A antigen, Anti-B antibodyGroup B: B antigen, Anti-A antibodyGroup AB: A and B antigens, no antibodies<li dat

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the steps of blood clotting and the role of coagulation factors?

Blood clotting occurs via two pathways intrinsic and extrinsic both leading to the activation of factor X. Activated factor X (Xa) with factor Va, platelet phospholipids, and calcium converts prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin monomers, which polymerize into a fibrin clot. Factor XIII stabilizes the clot by forming cross-linked fibrin.<img width="465px;" height="446px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAYIAAAFyCAYAAAD4aN2QAAAQAElEQVR4AeydK

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the main types of white blood cells and their functions?

White blood cells (WBCs) are immune cells that protect the body against infection. Main types include:Monocyte: Large cells that differentiate into macrophages.Lymphocyte: B cells and T cells, key for adaptive immunity.Basophil: Releases histamine during allergic responses.<li data-list-item-id="e51

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the main organs and functions of the lymphatic system?

Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils, and lymphatic vessels; functions include fluid balance, lymph filtration, and immune defense.<img width="321px;" height="433px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAA4QAAATBCAYAAABjfFpqAAAQAElEQVR4AeydB4AkR3X335u0e0EZIQmBJBBBSEQhQCKKDCYJE4wxNtkm2CCCTfxAmGxssg0YAwJMTsLkLEQGEYQyIiif0uW7TRP6e7+aebM1fbN7e2HvNrzdeV1Vr/K/q2fq36+6ulLEXyAQCAQCgUAgEAgEAoFAIBAIBAKBwLJEoCLxt4wQiK4GAoFAIBAIBAKBQCAQCAQCgUAgMI1AEMJpLMIXCCwtBKI3gUAgEAgEAoFAIBAIBAKB

BiologyClass 11CBSE

How does the cardiac conduction system control heartbeats?

he heart’s conduction system consists of specialized tissue that initiates and transmits impulses for coordinated contraction. The SA node (pacemaker) starts the impulse, which travels through internodal pathways to the AV node, then the bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, causing ventricular contraction. This system allows the heart to beat without external innervation.<img width="620px;" height="408px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAqcAAAHECAYAA

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the chambers, valves, and major vessels of the human heart?

The heart has four chambers: right atrium and ventricle, left atrium and ventricle. Blood flows through valves tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic and major vessels: superior or inferior vena cava, pulmonary veins, pulmonary artery, and aorta.<img width="416px;" height="364px;" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/4gHYSUNDX1BST0ZJTEUAAQEAAAHIAAAAAAQwAABtbnRyUkdCIFhZWiAH4AABAAEAAAAAAABhY3NwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQAA9tYAAQAAAADTLQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the main coronary arteries of the heart and their role in heart disease?

Left coronary artery, right coronary artery, and circumflex artery supply blood to the heart; blockages can cause heart disease or heart attacks.<img width="460px;" height="397px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAuEAAAIrCAYAAABBM0dAAAAQAElEQVR4Aez9B5wlaXrWiT7vF+ekK2/a90z39BiNRhqQQMgBK/yyQiBptYtASBen1cIKj1bALvditD+xgGCFXbwknASyICEzRuOdZqZH4/20m+5pX77Snoj7f96IOJlVXdXd1V3VWVX9RcUTr/3cGyczn/Nl5KnS1aNWoFagVqBWoFagVqBWoFagVqBW4AWtQFE9agVqBWoFXvAK1AFrBWoFagVqBWoFXtwVqCT8xX

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the components of an ECG and their significance?

P wave (atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), T wave (ventricular repolarization), PR interval, QRS duration, ST segment, and QT interval; used to assess heart function.<img width="387px;" height="357px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAABLAAAASgCAYAAADo97FUAAAQAElEQVR4AezdB7xsWVUg/PvonGgeIBkERCQ0QZJhJIniCGYQ9AMBdQYQcYBRAQGFEZEkiMAQFAUkqAgoCIjkNIpkUTJIltwNNN1N002/b63bt947r96tulV19sl/f3vdc+qEffb+7wvct9xn10W2/B8BAgQIECBAgAABAgQIECAwdgH9IzBoAQ

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What is columnar epithelium and its function?

Columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall, slender, column-shaped cells on a basement membrane, with elongated basal nuclei. It lines the stomach and intestines and functions in absorption and secretion.<img width="465px;" height="339px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAjEAAAGYCAYAAACzlLNPAAAQAElEQVR4AeydBWDcxhKGv7szM8SxHWZmZmZmZmZmZmZmZuaGmZmZyTHEzHRv9pK0aZu2Seqk6evZmtNqtTszO9Jpfs2sdNolPnp9iVWeRjLawHgOGM8B4zlgPAeM54DxHPhXnAOlVnvp1Z921V4vjH9GCxgtYLSA0QJGCxgt8LkW

BiologyClass 11CBSE

What are the types of animal tissues and their subtypes?

Animal tissues are epithelial (simple: columnar, ciliated, cuboidal, squamous; stratified), muscular (striated, smooth, cardiac), connective (connective tissue proper, skeletal, fluid connective), and nervous tissue.<img width="936px;" height="341px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAABAQAAAEnCAYAAAA+Z5HQAAAQAElEQVR4AeydB5hURdaGj2QEARMqqy5rwKy/eY1rRAUkLjlIEhBRDBgQA6sCihhQQFRUFhPCiiBBBQMrGBbTghmVRVFUxACCZPz7rZlqbt/p7umZ6Z7pmfnmmbqVTp2q+urculWnQlfYvPWPP2SEgWRAMiAZkAxIBiQ

BiologyClass 12CBSE

Who are Polly and Molly sheep and why are they significant?

Polly and Molly are cloned sheep, demonstrating reproductive cloning using somatic cell nuclear transfer. Polly was genetically modified before cloning, and Molly is one of the first cloned mammals from an adult somatic cell.<img width="639px;" height="360px;" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/4gHYSUNDX1BST0ZJTEUAAQEAAAHIAAAAAAQwAABtbnRyUkdCIFhZWiAH4AABAAEAAAAAAABhY3NwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQAA9tYAAQAAAADTLQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

BiologyClass 12CBSE

Who is ANDi monkey and why is it significant in genetic research?

ANDi is the first genetically modified primate created using viral gene transfer, expressing a green fluorescent protein. It demonstrates the potential for genetic engineering in primates for biomedical research.<img width="512px;" height="384px;" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/4gHYSUNDX1BST0ZJTEUAAQEAAAHIAAAAAAQwAABtbnRyUkdCIFhZWiAH4AABAAEAAAAAAABhY3NwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQAA9tYAAQAAAADTLQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

BiologyClass 12CBSE

What are genetically modified animals and their applications?

Genetically modified animals are engineered by altering their DNA to express desired traits, such as improved milk production, disease resistance, or growth characteristics. Commonly used in agriculture and research.<img width="505px;" height="336px;" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/4gHYSUNDX1BST0ZJTEUAAQEAAAHIAAAAAAQwAABtbnRyUkdCIFhZWiAH4AABAAEAAAAAAABhY3NwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQAA9tYAAQAAAADTLQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

BiologyClass 12CBSE

What are the steps of Western blot for protein detection?

Separation gel, blotting, immunostaining with labeled antibodies, and autoradiography visualization.<img width="665px;" height="401px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAqYAAAF9CAYAAADWaqruAAAQAElEQVR4AeydB4AWNdPH/88dx3HA0XuVJgoqiCiKiA0LShOxYUdFxS723rvYEAs2UEFAUEFBBQG7gg3pKkWQ3utRjrtvftnNcwsCIvj6Ae7dzmYymUwmk2wym93Nk5KbMzc3htgGcR+I+0DcB+I+EPeBuA/EfSDuA//ffSBF8V9sgdgCsQViC/wPLRCLji0QWyC2QGyBbbVA7Jhuq6VivtgCsQViC8QWiC0QWyC2QGyB/6kFtssx/Z9qFAuPLRBbILZAbIHYArEFYgvEFvhPWiB

BiologyClass 12CBSE

What are the key steps in an ELISA assay?

Coating, blocking, sample addition, detection antibody, and readout.<img width="377px;" height="416px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAjAAAAJqCAYAAAA15Hr+AAAQAElEQVR4AeydB2AURRfHf1eSK6kkgQCh96J0BBEbIlJFQAREUBAEAUWqCCiifigqCEhHOkjvIIj03nvvHQIJkN5z38wlFy4hgSQECGQ2+zKzszNv3vx3Z+d/b/ZutJbYGxYlCgN1D6h7QN0D6h5Q94C6B56le0CL2hQCCgGFgEJAIaAQSCMCKvvTRkARmKd9BVT9CgGFgEJAIaAQUAikGQFFYNIMmSqgEFAIKASePgLKAoVAVkdAEZisfgeo9isEFAIKAYWAQuAZREARmGfwoimTFQJPHwFlgUJAIaAQeLoIKALzdPFXtSs

BiologyClass 12CBSE

What are the main components of a bioreactor system?

Feeding pump, agitation system, reactor tank, submerged aerator, thermal jacket, sensor probes, and effluent pump.<img width="389px;" height="403px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAABLAAAATdCAYAAABfS69LAAAQAElEQVR4AeydBZxU1fvG3wHkb/uzu7EDMcBAQQRMDBSVsBCRbulYQkJSkRQUFQMDuwDF7sYWEzuwFQHZ//Nc9i5n7k7uzsxOPHze9568J773zjL3nfecW8X0TwREQAREQAREQAREQAREQAREQAREIN8JaH4ikNMEZMDK6cunwYuACIiACIiACIiACIiACGSOgHoSAREQARGoLAIyYFUWefUrAiIgAiIgAiIgAoVIQHMWAREQAREQAREQgXIQkAGrHNB0igiIg

BiologyClass 12CBSE

What are the three main steps of one PCR cycle and their corresponding temperatures?

Denaturation at 95°C, Annealing at 55°C, Extension at 72°C.<img width="568px;" height="421px;" src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAx0AAAJPCAYAAAAZqLnbAAAQAElEQVR4AeydBaAnR5H/P90z87Pn+9Y1LiTEDbcDjoND7uBwd3c9NFiCBw8JBEkgQkIIEiyQQFyJbtw267vP3/vJ2P9b83tvswncIfe/O7idydS0VVdXVXdXtfzexufZVP5fgxnVLyHPSh2UOijHQDkGyjHw548B8z2T8h/j2yDNJnODXGEBqXDS6TyPpdftIVE6UX6quulYnieiY+kiX2VzuHNpC1PlG2xvq1PVK2gYnRLyUhd5qYNyHpRj4M8ZA7Kdieyz2VYDs62FDZZd/o/2FcLxoBd7/ppwro7VL6HUQKmBv14DZc1SAzuaBuQ/

BiologyClass 12CBSE

Explain pBR322 plasmid vector

pBR322 is a cloning vector with ori, ampicillin resistance, tetracycline resistance, and several restriction sites.The diagram shows the pBR322 plasmid, a circular DNA cloning vector used in genetic engineering.pBR322 – plasmid vector of 4361 base pairsori – origin of replication; helps plasmid copy itself</l

BiologyClass 12CBSE

Explain recombinant DNA formation and bacterial transformation

Foreign DNA is cut and joined into a plasmid vector, then inserted into E. coli by transformation.The diagram shows how foreign DNA is inserted into vector DNA/plasmid and then transferred into E. coli cells.Foreign DNA – DNA fragment to be insertedVector DNA / plasmid – circular DNA used to carry the foreign gene<li dat

BiologyClass 12CBSE

Explain EcoRI restriction enzyme and recombinant DNA formation

EcoRI cuts DNA at GAATTC, producing sticky ends that join to form recombinant DNA.The diagram shows how the restriction enzyme EcoRI cuts vector DNA and foreign DNA at the sequence GAATTC, forming sticky ends that join to make recombinant DNA.Vector DNA – DNA used to carry foreign DNAForeign DNA – DNA segment to be inserted</

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