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Which one of the following industries uses limestone as a raw material. a) Aluminium (b) Cement (c ) Sugar (d) Jute
Solution: (b) Cement
Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
Solution: After the Second World War, many parts of the world were still under European colonial rule, and it took over two decades for the colonies in Asia and Africa to become free independent nations. When they became free, they faced many other problems, such as poverty, lack of resources, etc. Economies and societies were handicapped for being under colonial rule for long periods. As colonies, many of the less developed regions of the world had been part of Western empires. The policy of the Bretton Woods twins tilted more in favour of the developed nations of the Western world. Now, ironically, as newly independent countries facing urgent pressures to lift their populations out of poverty, they came under the guidance of international agencies dominated by the former colonial powers. Therefore, these colonies organised themselves as a group – the Group of 77 (or G-77) – to demand a new international economic order (NIEO). By the NIEO, they meant a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access to their manufactured goods in developed countries’ markets.
Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
Solution: The Great Depression was a result of many factors. Some of them are Agriculture overproduction was a major problem. As a result, agricultural prices fell. As prices fell, so did agricultural incomes. This increased the volume of goods in the market. The situation got worsened in the market. Prices fell further. Farm produce began to rot due to the lack of buyers. Prosperity in the USA during the 1920s created a cycle of higher employment and incomes. It led to a rise in consumption and demand. More investment and more employment created tendencies of speculation, which led to the Great Depression of 1929 up to the mid-1930s. The stock market crashed in 1929. It created panic among investors and depositors, who stopped investing and depositing. As a result, it created a cycle of depreciation. The withdrawal of US loans affected the rest of the world in many different ways. In Europe, it led to the failure of the major banks and the collapse of major currencies such as the British pound sterling. Some of the banks closed down when people withdrew all their assets, leaving them unable to invest. Some banks called back loans taken from them at the same dollar rate in spite of the falling value of the dollar.
Explain the three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
Solution: The three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange are trade flows, human capital flows and capital flows or investments. These can be explained as the trade in agricultural products, migration of labour, and financial loans to and from other nations. The flow of trade (trade in goods, e.g. cloth or wheat) India was a hub of trade in the pre-modern world, and it exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver from Europe. Fine cotton was produced in India and was exported to Europe. With industrialisation, British cotton manufacturing began to expand, and industrialists pressurised the government to restrict cotton imports and protect local industries. As a result of the tariffs that were imposed on cloth imports, the inflow of fine Indian Cotton began to decline. The flow of labour (the migration of people in search of employment) In the field of labour, indentured labour was provided for mines, plantations and factories abroad, in huge numbers, in the nineteenth century. This was an instrument of colonial domination by the British. Indentured labourers were hired under contacts who promised return travel to India after they had worked five years on their employer’s plantation. The living conditions were harsh, and the labourers had little protection from the law or from it as they had few rights. The movement of capital (investments) Britain took generous loans from the USA to finance the World War. Since India was an English colony, the impact of these loan debts was felt in India too. Food and other crops for the world market required capital. Large plantations could borrow it from banks and markets.
Imagine that you are indentured Indian labour in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in the chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings
Solution: Dear Ma and Pa, My work as an indentured labourer in Jamaica is far from a walk in the park. Through this letter, I want to tell you about my life here. When the contractor hired me, he was quite economical with the truth about the living and working conditions. To say nothing of the kind of work and place of work. We have very few rights, with the contractor living up to the behaviour standards expected of them in the Caribbean – extremely harsh. He treats us like animals since we are a minority and thus easy targets for his wrath. Accidents are common in the sugar plantations in Jamaica. One time, I saw a worker burnt alive when the liquid sugar we were boiling accidentally spilt on him. Since he cannot work with his third-degree burns, the contractor saw it fit to throw him out without any due wages paid. We don’t have any rights to speak or to express our dissatisfaction about the working conditions. And if we do, we will face the overseer’s whips. Whenever I do not attend my work, I am liable to be in jail. There is a lot of work at the plantations with a heavy workload and less time to finish it all. In case of unsatisfactory work, my wages are cut. If there is hell on earth, it certainly is this. I know my writing will cause you anguish but rest assured, there is talk of new laws underway to protect labourers like us. Thus, this situation will pass soon.
What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?
In order to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world, the post-war international economic system was established. To execute the same, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference was held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. The Bretton Woods Conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and shortages in its member nations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was set up for financial post-war reconstruction, and it started its financial operations in 1947. Under the agreement, currencies were pegged to the price of gold, and the US dollar was seen as a reserve currency linked to the price of gold. Decision-making authority was given to the Western industrial powers. The US was given the right to veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions. The Bretton Woods System was based on fixed exchange rates. The Bretton Woods System opened an era of unique growth of trade and income for the Western industrial nations and Japan.
Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
Improved transportation systems: Improved transportation systems helped the food items get delivered on time to the markets without any harm. Faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food cheaply and quickly from faraway farms to final markets. Refrigerated ships: The development of refrigerated ships enabled the transport of perishable foods over long distances. Animals were slaughtered for food at the starting point – in America, Australia or New Zealand – and then transported to Europe as frozen meat. This reduced shipping costs and lowered meat prices in Europe. The poor in Europe could add meat to their diet, which was monotonous with only bread and potatoes.
Write a note to explain the effect of the following: a. The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws. b. The coming of rinderpest to Africa. c. The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War. d. The Great Depression on the Indian economy. e. The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws was due to pressure from the landed groups, who were unhappy with the high price of food and the cheap inflow of agricultural products from Australia and America. As a result, many English farmers left their profession and migrated to towns and cities. Some went overseas. This indirectly led to global agriculture and rapid urbanisation, a prerequisite of industrial growth. Rinderpest (a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague) arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. It had a terrifying impact on people’s livelihoods and the local economy. It started in East Africa and soon spread to other parts of the continent. Within five years, it reached the Cape of Good Hope (Africa’s Southernmost tip), by which it had killed 90 % of the cattle population in that part of Africa. It spread through infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa. Using this situation to their advantage, colonising nations conquered and subdued Africa by monopolising scarce cattle resources to force Africans into the labour market. The Africans were forced to work for a wage due to the loss of their livelihood because of the effect of Rinderpest. The First World War was the first modern industrial war. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons etc., on a massive scale. To fight such a war, millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and moved to the frontlines on large ships and trains. The scale of death and destruction was unlike any other conflict in the modern era. Most of the killed and maimed were men of working age; the deaths and injuries of these men drastically reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe. With fewer members within the family, household incomes declined after the war. Thus, women stepped in to do the jobs that were earlier done by men. It increased the role of women and led to a demand for equal status in society. It made the feminist movement even stronger. In the nineteenth century, colonial India had become an exporter of agricultural goods and an importer of manufactures. The impact of the Great Depression on India was felt, especially in the agricultural sector. It was evident that the Indian economy was closely becoming integrated into the global economy. India was a British colony and exported agricultural goods and imported manufactured goods. As international prices crashed, so did the prices in India. Wheat prices in India fell by 50 % between 1928 and 1934. Wages were relatively low in Asian countries like China. Thus, they became lucrative destinations for investment by foreign MNCs competing to dominate world markets. The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world trade and capital flow. The impact of MNC’s decision to relocate production to Asian Countries was as follows: It provided a cheap source of labour for MNCs. It stimulated world trade and increased capital inflow in Asian countries. The local population had a greater choice of goods and services along with prospects of greater employment opportunities for them.
Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.
Solutions: The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas. The reason was that the native Americans were not immune to the diseases that the European settlers brought with them. The Europeans were, to a certain extent, immune to the effects of diseases like smallpox due to centuries of exposure. However, the native Americans had no such defence against this disease, as they were isolated from diseases native to the old world. At times, settlers deliberately practised biological warfare on the natives by giving items laced with smallpox germs as ‘gifts of friendship’. The disease was far more effective in wiping out entire tribes and communities without having to resort to firearms.
Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place in the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
Solution: The following are examples of cross-cultural exchanges from Asia and the Americas: The Silk Route (Asia): The Silk Route is a good example of cross-cultural trade and connectivity between distant parts of the world. The name ‘Silk Route’ points to the importance of Westbound Chinese silk cargoes along this route. Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Early Christian missionaries almost certainly travelled this route to Asia, as did early Muslim preachers a few centuries later. Food from the Americas: The food that is part of our staple diet today, like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes etc., were not known to our ancestors until the accidental discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus. These food items only made it to Europe and the rest of the world after the monumental discovery of the new continent.
Explain how the print culture assisted in the growth of nationalism in India.
Solution: Print culture assisted in the growth of nationalism in India in the following ways: By the end of the 19th century, a large number of newspapers in Indian vernacular languages were published, making it easier to circumvent the language barriers among the various ethnic groups of Indians. These newspapers published articles written by national leaders. Their ideas were communicated to the masses through these newspapers. The people of different communities and places were thus connected by print media. Newspapers conveyed news from one place to another, creating a pan-Indian identity. The nationalist newspapers exposed the colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. As these were written in spoken languages of various regions, the common man could easily understand the content. For example, when Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balagangadhar Tilak wrote articles sympathising with them. He was arrested, which provoked protest among the masses. Thus, it is clear that print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth-century India?
Solution: Public libraries were set up in the early twentieth century, expanding access to books. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns and, at times, in prosperous villages. For rich local patrons, setting up a library was a way of acquiring prestige. From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination were written about in many printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras (better known as Periyar) wrote powerfully on caste, and their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts, criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future. At the very least, it made pooer people aware of their rights and their place in society and Print media showed the way in which they can improve their lot in life.
Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.
Solution: Some people, especially from the upper class, feared the effect of easily available printed books due to the spread of literacy among the common people. They feared that they might lose their position or authorities. Some people thought that it might lead to the spread of rebellions and irreligious thoughts. Example: (i) In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church tried to curb printed books through the Index of Prohibited Books. (ii) In India, the Vernacular Press Act imposed restrictions on Indian press and various local newspapers.
Why did some people in the eighteenth century Europe think that culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?
With the spreading of new ideas after the coming of print culture, the ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published. Books as a medium of progress by the eighteenth century: Books became a medium of spreading progress and enlightenment, which could change society and the world. It was also believed that the books could liberate society from despotism and tyranny. Writings of scholars: The writings of thinkers such as Jean Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Paine and Voltaire were also widely printed and could gain popularity. Thus, their ideas about science, rationality and reasoning found their way into popular literature. Scientific discoveries: Maps and more accurate scientific diagrams were widely printed when scientists like Issac Newton began to publish their discoveries. They could influence a much wider circle of scientifically-minded readers.
What did the spread of print culture in the nineteenth century India mean to: a. Women b. The poor c. Reformers
Solution: (a) Women: Women became as important as readers and writers. Reading habits improved among them. With an increase in literacy, women took a great interest in reading and writing. Many journals started emphasizing the importance of women’s education. Many magazines and books were especially published for women. The print culture gave women some amount of freedom to read and develop their own views on various issues, especially those related to women. (b) The Poor: As the literacy rate improved in Europe as well as in India, printed material, especially for entertainment, began to reach even the poor. In England, ‘penny magazines’ were carried by peddlers and sold for a penny so that even poor people could buy them. Those who could not read could listen to the stories and folklore. These stories and folklore could be read out to them by others. Books could be hired for a nominal fee from some book owners. Even in India, very cheap small books were brought to the market in 19th-century Madras towns, which allowed poor people to have access to print culture. (c) Reformers: Reformers used newspapers, journals and books to highlight the social evils prevailing in the society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy published the ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ to highlight the plight of widows. From the 1860s, many Bengali women writers like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women, about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labour and treated unjustly by the menfolk they served.
Write short notes on what you know about: a. The Gutenberg Press b. Erasmus’s idea of the printed book c. The Vernacular Press Act
Solution: (a) The Gutenberg Press was the first printing press of Europe. It was invented by Johannes Gutenberg of Strasbourg. He grew up in a large agricultural estate and had knowledge and experience in operating olive and wine presses. He invented the printing press around the year 1448, with the Bible being the first book to be printed. (b) Erasmus, the Latin scholar, was not happy with the printing of books because he was afraid that this would lead to the circulation of books with rebellious ideas. He felt that although a few books may give useful information, the majority of books may just be irrelevant or illogical, through which scandalous or irreligious ideas will spread, ultimately leading to incitement of rebellion. (c) The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878 by the British government in India. This act provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. If a vernacular paper published any seditious material, the paper was banned, and its printing machinery was seized and destroyed.
Give reason for the following: a. Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295. b. Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it. c. The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century d. Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for the liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.
Solution: (a) Marco Polo, the Italian explorer, visited China and learnt the technology of woodblock printing. When he returned to Italy in 1295, he brought this knowledge back with him. Gradually this knowledge spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. (b) In 1517, Martin Luther, the religious reformer, wrote ninety-five theses that criticised the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church and pasted these on the church door in Wittenberg. Very soon, thousands of copies of Luther’s theses were printed, spreading his ideas among people. Martin Luther was deeply moved to realize the power of printing, which brought about the reformation movement and the eventual birth of Protestantism. (c) Print and popular literature encouraged many distinctive interpretations of religious faiths and ideas. In the 16th century, Manocchio, a roller in Italy, began to read books available readily in his locality. He gave a new interpretation of the Bible and formulated a view of God and creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, Manocchio was hauled up twice and ultimately executed when the Roman Catholic Church began its inquisition. (d) Mahatma Gandhi said these words in 1922 during the Non-cooperation Movement (1920-22). According to him, without the liberty of speech, the liberty of the press and freedom of association, no nation can even survive. If the country was to get free from foreign domination, then these liberties were quite important.
Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
It was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people of the region were broadly known as Slavs. A large part was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Gradually, independence was declared from them. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, made this region very explosive. Rise of Nationalism in Europe Summary Chapter 1 of NCERT Social Science History textbook – India and the Contemporary World-II is titled as ‘Rise of Nationalism in Europe’. The rise of nationalism in Europe is considered to have begun with the Spring of Nations in 1848. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and psychological landscape of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state, in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe. The students will also get to know about the following topics: The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation The Making of Nationalism in Europe The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for? A New Conservatism after 1815 The Revolutionaries The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals The Making of Germany and Italy Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation? Italy Unified The Strange Case of Britain Visualising the Nation Nationalism and Imperialism
How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Formation of the nation-state was not due to sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. The primary identities of people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. The Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Scottish people were forbidden from speaking their Gaelic language and from wearing their national dress. Many were driven out of their homeland. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in 1801. This was achieved by the English helping the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over the Catholics. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God save our Noble King) and the English language were actively promoted, and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
Focus countries – Germany and Italy. Germany Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states. Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large landowners called the ‘Junkers of Prussia’. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, the Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor. Importance was given to modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Italy During the 1830s, Mazzini sought to unify Italy. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’, and it had failed. Hence, the responsibility fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II, to unify Italian states through war. Austrian forces were defeated in 1859. Apart from Sardinia-Piedmont, a large number of volunteers had joined the cause under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1860, they marched to South Italy and managed to defeat Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of Italy.
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